Summary:-
In the end, some points
are illustrated with facts and figures for development planners of the state of Karnataka to take into
consideration while designing development schemes under following headings:-
1) Possible
considerations for Planning of Water Management
a) PPP
Model for Effective Execution
b) Promotion
of Rain Water Harvesting (RWH)
c) Use
of Adequate and Cost-Effective Technology for Water Management
d) Further
Exploration of Innovative Ways
2) A
few Critical Challenges for Planning of Forestation Initiatives
a) Forestation
in regions with Depleting Ground Water
b) Strategic
Forestation in Coastal Regions to Curb Coastal Erosion
3) Considerations
to Vulnerability of Migrants (Migrating due to Natural Calamities)
- - - - - - -
Point Wise Illustrations:-
A.
Historically
Coastal Karnataka Receives Significantly More Rainfall Than Rest of Karnataka
a. Karnataka Yearly Rainfall Pattern -
Average rainfall received by Karnataka suggests that Karnataka gets good amount
of rain during four months of rainy season – JUN to SEP. This is shown in the picture below (data is taken from reference – a)
(Picture-1:
Distribution of Rainfall Across the Year in Karnataka)
b. The Six Districts Get Significantly
More Rainfall - District wise average annual rainfall across
districts of Karnataka suggest that six adjoining districts of the state get
exceptionally high rainfall (Please refer to following point for list of these
districts). The yearly average rainfall of these six districts for last 10
years is 289.1 CM in comparison to state average of 115.2 CM per year. Out of
these six districts, the yearly average of top four districts receiving maximum
rainfall is 340.5 CM, which is almost thrice the state average (reference – a).
(Picture-2:
Map of Karnataka – reference d)
c. These Six Districts are located in
Coastal Region of the state (Karnataka) - These districts are
located in coastal belt and are listed as under (in order of highest to lowest
yearly rainfall (average) – (refer Picture-2 and Picture-3):-
i. Udupi
– Average Rainfall of 418.0 CM per Year
ii. D.Kannada
– Average Rainfall of 391.2 CM per Year
iii. U.Kannada
– Average Rainfall of 288.6 CM per Year
iv. Kodagu
– Average Rainfall of 264.4 CM per Year
v. Chickmagalur
– Average Rainfall of 190.5 CM per Year
vi. Shimoga
– Average Rainfall of 182.0 CM per Year
The next highest rainfall
is received by Hassan district which is a distant 98.9 CM per Year (nearly half
of what Shimoga receives) - (reference – a)
(Picture-3: District Wise Rainfall for State of Karnataka – compiled from reference - a)
B.
Research
on Possible Reasons for Heavy Rainfall Received by Coastal Region of Karnataka
– (reference
– b)
a. Ms
Sayli A. Tawde is presently a PhD student in the Centre for Atmospheric &
Ocean Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, has carried out studies
on Mansoon Rainfall on Western Ghats of Karnataka as a part of her M. Tech
project under the supervision of Ms. Charu Singh, a scientist at Marine and
Atmospheric Sciences Department, Indian Institute of Remote Sensing, ISRO,
Dehradun, Uttarakhand. The studies highlights are several possible reasons for
excessive rainfall received in Western Ghats of Karnataka. These are:-
i. First,
the mountain topography in Karnataka is broader than the narrow topography of
the Ghats in Maharashtra. Due to the greater width of the mountains, the rain
bearing winds have to necessarily travel a longer distance and have more time
for the drops to coalesce and precipitate as rainfall, resulting in higher
rainfall. In contrast, the narrow width of the Ghats in Maharashtra allows the
rain-bearing wind to cross over to the leeward side rapidly before
precipitation can occur. As for Kerala, the Ghats there are in the form of
isolated mountains, where the rain-bearing winds can easily cross over to the
leeward side through the gaps in between without precipitation occurring.
ii. Second,
the slope of the mountain has a direct bearing on the possibility of
precipitation. This is borne out by the Ghats of Karnataka where the mountains
are gently sloping, compared to the steep slopes of the Ghats in Maharashtra
and Kerala. The air parcel will retain its energy and speed for a longer time
when the slope is gradual. This will provide sufficient vertical motion to
cloud droplets to grow by collision–coalescence process and hence form
precipitation.
iii. Third,
the gentle slope provides a greater area for sunlight absorption and heating
leading to greater convection when compared with an abrupt slope i.e. less Ghat
area such as that of the Maharashtra and Kerala Ghats.
iv. Fourth,
the continuous mountain range presents a greater barrier to rain-bearing winds
than a range comprising isolated mountains with gaps in between where the winds
can easily pass to the leeward side. Unlike in the case of Kerala, the Ghats in
Maharashtra and Karnataka are continuous.
C. Historically, The Coastal Region of
Karnataka also has greater Percentage of Cloud Cover & more Number of Wet
Days in a Year – (reference – e)
a.
Water Portal of MET has collated
district wise rainfall related data for more than one hundred years. (http://www.indiawaterportal.org/met_data/)
b. The
data for number of Wet Days and percentage Cloud Cover are not available for
all the six districts that have been found to be receiving significantly above
average rainfall in Karnataka. However, data from year 1901 to 2002 for
Chikmagalur, Kodagu and Shimoga suggests that wet day frequency are quite high
during rainy season and for three months during the year wet days are more than
15 days a month. Similarly, Cloud Cover in these three districts is found to be
around or above 50% for four to five months during a year.
D. However, Karnataka has vast area
which has been termed Drought Prone (Mostly falling in Non-Coastal Areas of the
State) – (reference – j)
a. The
CWC after detailed study has identified 14 districts in Karnataka as
‘droughtprone’. According to this study an area of 1,52,163 sq.kms. which
represents 80 per cent of the total area of the State is drought-prone.
b. Area
of Bijapur, Dharwad, Hubli and Bagalkot are always the most affected when there
is a drought in northern part of Karnataka.
c. After
studying decades of rainfall pattern and other factors the drought-prone
districts of Karnataka are given in the table below (reference - shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in)
(Picture-4: Drought-Prone Districts
of Karnataka)
E. Consistent Deficiency of Rainfall and
Recent Drought in Karnataka (2015)
a. Meteorological drought is
classified based on rainfall deficiency w.r.t. long term average
– 25% or less is normal, 26-50% is moderate and more than 50% is severe.
b. Karnataka is
witnessing drought for the third successive year; rainfall has
been deficient since 2012-13.
c. Drought
in 2015 – The
drought in 2015 affected 135 Talukas in 27 districts of Karnataka.
In reference to the map below, the pattern suggests that the coastal region of
Karnataka are the least affected.
(Picture
– 5: Drought Affected Talukas for Drought in 2015 – reference f)
d. It
has been reported that following issues have surfaced as a result of recent
droughts due to deficiency of rainfall in Karnataka (Reference - g) :-
i. Drinking
Water Crisis
ii. Water
levels in reservoirs are reaching at alarming levels
iii. Fodder
Shortage
iv. Unemployment
and Migration
v. Power
crisis due to unreliable hydropower
e. Other
than deficiency of rainfall, possible reasons for the severe drought are as
under (Reference - i) :-
i. Extinction of Water Bodies
– Water bodies (natural or man-made) are regarded as direct or indirect life
supporting system for millions of living beings, significant source of water
and moderate the hydrological extreme events like (say) drought. In the state
of Karnataka about 35% of wetland are threatened due to sedimentation, 43% are
subject to encroachments and 22% are due to rampant growth of exotic weeds.
ii. Depleting Ground Water
- Consistently depleting groundwater due to increase in population and rapid
urbanization has been aggravated due to farmers switching from traditional
crops to cash crops (like sugarcane and cotton).
iii. Failure of Rainwater Harvesting –
Efforts to engage public with Rainwater Harvesting by bringing suitable legal
framework and by generating awareness did not seem to have succeeded. The
suggested causes are:-
1. inadequate
financial assistance,
2. long
winded procedures and
3. poor
maintenance of structures once they are built
iv. Depleting Forest Cover –
"Among the six states (1920-2013), historical loss of forest area was very
high in Western Ghats of Kerala with forest cover loss of 62.7 percent of area,
followed by 34.9 percent in Gujarat, 27.1 percent in Karnataka, 26.3 percent in
Goa, 21.6 percent in Maharashtra and 15.2 percent in Tamil Nadu," reveals
the research paper which has been published in the "Journal of Earth
System Science" of the Indian Academy of Sciences.
F. Points Worth Considering for
Development Planners
a. Consideration for Planning of Water
Management – Some experts believe that more sensible
water management is required for effectively working towards water crisis.
i. PPP Model for Effective Execution
- Despite all inherent problems
in implementation of PPP projects under Indian conditions,
one must accept that this is one of the most effective ways with a great
potential to bring difference to infrastructural development. There
has been many success stories too and there is a prospect
to learn from past experiences and revive
PPP implementation in India. (reference – l)
In the recent past, Kerala chose to
respond to drought
in 2013 with PPP arrangement. Learnings from such
initiatives can be used for better implementation of new PPP implementations.
Water bodies can be rejuvenated under PPP
in drought prone areas of Karnataka. Tanks and lakes play an important role in
helping irrigation as well as recharging ground water in the surrounding areas.
A detailed feasibility
study on use of PPP for rejuvenation of lakes has been done by
Infrastructure Development Corporation (Karnataka) Limited. In this study, it
has been suggested that protests against PPP for rejuvenation of lakes is due
to apprehensions issues related to commercialization of lakes. However, conservation
of lakes under private participation could be undertaken by framing a suitable
guidelines and policies for private participation which is not purely
commercial in nature and the guidelines should provide for environmental
protection, ecological sensitivity issues, abatement of pollution and more so
ever conservation of lakes for the public purpose by the private parties. Further,
it has been recommended that development of Lake Fronts be included within the
scope of the project to make such projects a viable business proposition for
private partners.
ii. Promotion of Rain Water Harvesting
(RWH) – In brief is defined as the
process of concentrating rainfall as runoff from the larger area for use of
smaller target area. Even though, implementation of RWH in
India has been full of challenges, it
may be noted that this is one of the established strategies for reducing
pressure on water demand (usually in regions with scarce
supply of water with reasonably good rain). Tamil Nadu is hailed for successful
implementation of RWH initiative through persistent
efforts over a decade. It is believed that Public Participation was critical
factor for success of RWH. Door to Door campaign on RWH
was done for long period of time with active participation of
SHGs (Self Help Groups) and NGOs (Non-Government Organizations) to sensitize
huge population with wide diversity.
One of the most important underlying
values in rainwater harvesting is that it is a benign technology (Bachelor et
al. 2002) and cannot create undesirable consequences. Water harvesting
initiatives are driven by firm beliefs and assumptions,
some of which are:
1. that
there is a huge amount of monsoon flow, which remains un-captured and
eventually ends up in the natural sinks
2. that
local water needs are too small and as such exogenous water is not needed;
3. that
local water harvesting systems are always small and, therefore, are cost-effective;
4. since
the economic, social and environmental values of water are very high in regions
hit by water shortages, water harvesting interventions are viable, supported by
the assumption that cost- effective alternatives that can bring in the same
amount of water, do not exist;
5. incremental
structures lead to incremental benefits; and
6. being
small with low water storage and diversion capacities, they do not pose
negative consequences for downstream uses.
In relation to Rain Water Harvesting,
recent studies by The Institute for Social and Economic Change, Bangalore
insists on
Awareness Creation Initiatives and on Strengthening the Process of Implementation for successful implementation of RWH.
However, a group of experts are totally
averse to the idea of RWH and they do not consider Water
Harvesting or Artificial Recharge in Naturally Water-Scarce Regions of India an
economically viable option. The apprehensions raised by such
experts must also be taken into account while designing a program on RWH.
Following points indicate that promotion
of RWH in Karnataka may be preferred in Coastal and Southern regions for
optimal gains (however, to conclude on this indicative argument or an initial
idea, an expert opinion from recognized body must be taken with due
consideration to numerous other aspects).
1. The
pattern
of rainfall in Coastal Karnataka (high) and North of Karnataka
(low). Regions with lower mean annual rainfall experience higher variability
and vise versa (Pisharoty 1990). Hence, in regions with lower mean annual
rainfalls, rainwater harvesting as a dependable source of water is likely to be
low. Further, runoff harvesting, rainfall has to exceed a threshold to generate
runoff. Moreover, smaller magnitude of rainfall usually means fewer rainy days,
which also means longer dry spells and thus greater losses from evaporation for
the same region. (“Rainwater Harvesting in the Water-scarce Regions of India:
Potential and Pitfalls”, M. D. Kumar, A. Patel and O.P. Singh)
2. The
picture below taken from "Rainwater Harvesting in the Water-scarce Regions
of India: Potential and Pitfalls" taken from paper by M. D.
Kumar, A. Patel and O.P. Singh suggests that Northern
Karnataka has greater annual evaporation rates in comparison coastal Karnataka
(least annual evaporation in the state)
(Picture-6:
Annual Evaporation Rate)
High evaporation during the rainy season
means losses from surface storage structures. It also means a faster rate of
soil moisture depletion through both evaporation from barren soils and
evapotranspiration, which increase the rate and quantum of soil infiltration.
This reduces the generation potential of runoff. Thus, low evaporation is favorable
for RWH.
iii. Use of Adequate and Cost-Effective
Technology for Water Management – Incremental adaption
of efficient and effective technology for Water Management may result in
facilitating better utilization of water. Systematic integration of advanced
hydrologic monitoring systems, data analytic systems
and other similar systems have capability to improve overall management of
water resources.
iv. Further Exploration of Innovative
Ways
– Exploration of other possibilities for efficient Water Management be
conducted on regular basis. A couple of the recently suggested explorations by
experts and planners are a) National
Water Development Agency (NWDA) working for strategic interlinking of rivers of
the country and b) Supplemental
Irrigation is another option suggested by experts.
b. A few Critical Challenges for Planning
of Forestation Initiatives – Forests cover 31%
of the land area on our planet. India is among
top ten countries that hold world’s two third of forests.
Global
efforts to curb deforestation are failing. The world has
lost the equivalent of 1,000 football fields of forests per hour for the last
25 years, according
to official figures. Various case
studies,
reports and analysis suggest that efforts
towards Conservation of Forests and Forestation (Reforestation and Afforestation)
experiences in past have yielded mixed results.
Site
selection and site preparation, vegetation
method, livelihoods and forest protection are key systemic success drivers for
success of reforestation.
Recently, Government of India has come up
with the Compensatory
Afforestation Fund bill, 2015 that seeks to establish setting up of a National
Compensatory Afforestation Fund and also a State Compensatory Afforestation
Fund.
Therefore, in near future a focused efforts towards Afforestation is expected.
And as stated above, in the period 1920 – 2013, Karnataka has lost 27.1 percent
of its forest cover. Therefore, afforestation will be on priority (for the
state).
The following Forest Cover map taken from
Forest Survey of India again suggests that coastal
Karnataka has comparatively rich forest cover.
(Picture-7: Forest Cover in
Karnataka)
A
few of the challenges for planners for Forestation Initiative are as under:-
i.
Forestation
in regions with Depleting Ground Water - One of the challenge
will be forestation efforts in those part of Karnataka, which are drought-prone
and which have depleting ground water. Forestation (Afforestation or
Reforestation) will have risk of further depletion of ground water. Technical
approaches—such as water diversion, artificial groundwater
recharge and efficient irrigation—have failed to balance regional groundwater budgets.
They need to be complemented by more comprehensive strategies that are adapted
to the specific social, economic, political and environmental settings of each
region. This needs inclusive and comprehensive efforts especially in the above
mentioned drought-prone regions of Karnataka.
ii. Strategic Forestation in Coastal
Regions to Curb Coastal Erosion –
Coastal
erosion is common phrase referring to the loss of subaerial
landmass into a sea or lake due to natural processes such as waves, winds and
tides, or even due to human interference.
In
Karnataka, about 50%
of area under coastal zone is subjected to moderate soil erosion
and 6% of the area to severe soil erosion.
Synchronizing forestation with efforts to
curb coastal erosion will need detailed survey and strategic site selection.
Thus, there will be good possibility that forestation in coastal regions may be
support efforts to curb Coastal Erosion. Coastal erosion and accretion are
natural processes; however, they may become a problem when exacerbated by human
activities or natural disasters. They are widespread in the coastal zone of
Asia and other countries in the Indian Ocean owing to a combination of various
natural forces, population growth and unmanaged economic development along the
coast, within river catchments and offshore.
A. There
is evidence that they provide some coastal protection and their clearance has
increased the vulnerability of coasts to erosion. Based on scientific findings,
the presence of vegetation in coastal areas will improve slope stability,
consolidate sediment and diminish the amount of wave energy moving onshore,
therefore protecting the shoreline from erosion.
B. Increased
interest in soft options (in this case the use of coastal forest and trees) for
coastal protection is becoming predominant and is in line with advanced
knowledge on coastal processes and the natural protective function of the
coastal system. This is because hard options are mostly satisfactory in the
short term, while soft options are effective in medium to long-term
perspectives (five to ten years).
C. A
combination of hard and soft solutions is sometimes necessary to improve the
efficiency of the options and to provide an environmentally and economically
acceptable coastal protection system.
c. Considerations to Vulnerability of Migrants
(Migrating due to Natural Calamities) – Understanding patterns
and reasons of migration is helpful for development planners not only in
estimation of future population for distribution of resources but also to
understand many inter-related socio-economic aspects associated with migration.
In the following data analysis, reasons
for migration data are based on the concept of place of last residence and it
useful to understand the motivational factors behind movement of people.
Some
important findings on analysis of 2001 census data is as under:-
1. About
30.62 percent of the total population of the state is considered as migrants in
2001 census.
2. Employment
and movement because of the displacements of families have been major cause of
movement among male migrants; marriage and displacement of families were the
most important reasons for female migration.
3. The
proportion of migrants moved due to employment related reasons, increases with
the increasing distance. Where as proportion of migrants moving due to marriage
decline remarkably with the distance.
4. The
highest proportion of in-migrant population was found in the district of
Bangalore whereas Kodagu has the lowest in the period from 1971 to 2001.
5. The
percentage of total migrants to total population in Karnataka from 1971 to 2001
has been slightly higher than in India as a whole, percentage of male migrants
also is much higher than in India, but female migrants are fewer in Karnataka
compared to India.
(Picture-8: District-Wise
In-Migration in Karnataka – 2001 Census Data, Reference - q)
6. The
general pattern that can be observed in the above picture suggests preference
of coastal districts of Karnataka by migrating population.
With coastal regions of Karnataka least
affected by recent drought, there is a possibility that within the state, there
could be increase in migrations influx from drought-hit districts towards
coastal districts. Development planners must try to anticipate such migrations
and try to support such migrants relocating due extreme circumstances for mere survival.
This drought in particular may or may not be due to climate change but similar
situation may arise die to natural calamities related to climate change. Climate
change will likely increase migration volume, exacerbating existing problems in
cities. Given that China
and India are among the most vulnerable to climate change and climate-induced
migration, this additional volume will likely increase the existing burden on
cities.
It may be noted that lack
of formal employment limits migrants’ ability to access financial services,
earn fair wages, and participate in labor rights movements.
At times, in a country as populous and diverse as India, language barriers and
cultural differences hinders social integration of migrant population. In
Karnataka itself around 66% people are Kannada speakers. Other popular
languages are Tamil, Urdu and Telgu. It is observed that many
times NGOs
play important role in protecting migrant workers from employer exploitation,
providing information regarding access to public services, and gathering
migration data in Indian cities. However, for such issues, development planners
may try to design programs having inter-weaving coordinated efforts by different
actors (like (say) cultural and social leadership or political leadership).
G. References:-
a. Rainfall
Data Reference
b. Why
Western Ghats in Karnataka receive more monsoon rainfall?
c. Data
on District Wise Yearly Rainy Days (Normal and Actual in 2014)
d. Map
of Karnataka
e. MET
Data for District Wise Rainfall
f. Karnataka
– 2015 Drought
g. Problems
in Drought hit Karnataka
h. Eco-Efficient
Urban Water Management
i.
Possible Reasons for Recent Drought in
Karnataka
j.
Drought Prone Areas in Karnataka
iii. http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/rise-in-droughtprone-areas-in-state/article6828224.ece
k. PPP
Model for Water Management
i. http://www.downtoearth.org.in/news/keralas-answer-to-drought-ppp-model-for-water-management-40535
l.
PPP Model in India
iii. http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/opinion/how-to-revive-the-ppp-model-in-india/article7797268.ece
m. Technology
in Water Management
n. Rain
Water Harvesting
o. Forestation
& Soil Erosion
p. Coastal
Erosion
q. Migration
r. Blog-Post Cover Picture (Free Downloaded from)
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